Working in groups - FAQ

Step 2: Identify Team Roles
To what extent can individuals with completely different skill profiles effectively work together? Belbin (1993) reasons that differences among team members in fact enhances the functioning of the whole group. She defined nine roles that have to be present in a successful team. Every role has its own specific character traits, each role supports another role (Table G.2). Belbin’s team role model explains why certain persons can cooperate very well and other’s less. People normally fulfill more roles in teams, but nobody is good at all roles. There are ‘allowable weaknesses’ in the skill profiles of team members. In effective teams, team members complement one another. Consequently, frustrations, which arise within every team, can be contained easily, when team members are well aware of the function of differences in the group.

Research amongst business students in 2006, hypothesized a number of relationships between the Belbin categories and the Skill Profiles in the Skill Sheets (Landis and Leliveld, 2006). Table G.2 shows in a simplified manner the results of this research project. Noticeable is in particular the strong skill profile of the implementer. This particular category is often also one of the most outspoken categories in group processes. Coordinators, shapers and resource investigators scored well on every skill. So, for these team roles it can be suggested that they approach most clearly the ambition of this Skill Sheet collection, i.e. the ‘integrated’ approach in which all skills are related and considered vital for study, research and management. This link has never been researched in detail, so the first results have to be interpreted with great caution.

• Identify which of Belbin’s Team Roles are present in the group
• Link these team roles with the research orientation and skill profile of each team member. Table G.2 links the Belbin roles with expected skill and research profiles. Examine to what extent the expected skill orientation in Table G.2 applies.
• Discuss on the basis of these profiles whether the group has sufficient diversity and complementarity in Team Roles and Skill Profiles to work together on this particular project.

The basic aim of the group report is to identify the starting position of the group and anticipate possible problems that might appear in further stages of the project due to initial weaknesses of the team. A detailed discussion of these aspects can be found in Skill Sheet G2.

The group contract defines the actual rules of engagement of the group. A smart contract takes the starting position of the group into account and on the basis of that decides upon goals, individual tasks and evaluation methods. Working in teams means that different people work on the same project at the same time, so it becomes vital to divide specific tasks adequately. This requires clear agreements on the subdivision of work. There are many methods to achieve this. For Goal setting, the S.M.A.R.T. method is particularly useful, for establishing individual goals, the 4W model can be applied.

3. Output/design: the SMART – method
S.M.A.R.T. is a technique to formulate functional and effective goals and agreements. It provides criteria to take into account when formulating goals. An important precondition for the SMART method to work is that all team members agree that these criteria are useful for the whole group. The SMART acronym stands for:

• Specifc: goals and agreements are specific, formulated in terms of concrete results.
• Measurable: goals and agreements are measurable in terms of quantity, quality, and time.
• Acceptable: goals and agreements are acceptable for yourself and others.
• Realistic: golas and agreements are realistic in sense of its feasibility and practicability.
• Time: a certain time period is mentioned and are provided with a (end) date.

4. Implementation: Divided tasks: 4W-model
The sub division of smaller tasks can best be done when all team members are present. In the specification of tasks, people often tend to forget – for various reasons – a number of dimensions of the taks, which lateron in the process might become problematic. One of the reasons is that other team members are also not able to check progress with team members if the specification of the divided tasks is not done appropriately. In order to take all relevant practical dimensions into account, individual assignments have to answer four questions:

• What needs to be done exactly?
• Who is responsible for which task?
• What needs to be done exactly?
• Why does it need to be done?
• When does it have to be finished? It is an essential part of effective team-management that everybody, in principle, can indicate at every moment what all other team members are doing and how this fits within their own work. 

1. Phases of decision-making
Decision-making can take up several consecutive meetings. The steps undertaken in effective decision-making processes in principle follow the phases of the Reflective Circle (A1):

• Recognise and define the problem - If the topic has not been prepared by a group member specially assigned to do this, the chairperson should give a (intermediary) problem definition by way of introduction. Diagnose the characteristics of the problem. The chairperson should list the different interests involved or opinions on the topic existing in the group and outside it.
• Aggregate solutions - Thinking about solutions can be organised in group meeting in particular by brainstorming or by issuing a report, or installing a committee. This phase should aim, primarily, at descriptions of the preferred situation.
• Make scenarios - Make scenarios and anticipate what the consequences could be of the implementation of each scenario. The group can be split into subgroups, which discuss separate scenarios of solutions and present listings of ‘strengths’ and ‘weaknesses’.
• Selection - Selection of one scenario and selection of an implementation plan. In the same meeting a particular implementation plan can be chosen and be clearly defined: time frame, responsibilities, resources located. Often, the latter elaboration’s can only be presented in the following meeting.
• Evaluation of the implementation - Evaluation is only included in the subsequent meetings, preferably on a regular basis. The input provided during the meeting by a specially assigned evaluator, very often leads to a redefinition of the problem, after which the whole group goes through the circle again, but now at a higher level of (mutual) understanding and with less ad-hoc decision-making.

The SMART – method
S.M.A.R.T. is a technique to formulate functional and effective goals and agreements. It provides criteria to take into account when formulating goals. An important precondition for the SMART method to work is that all team members agree that these criteria are useful for the whole group. The SMART acronym stands for:

• Specifc: goals and agreements are specific, formulated in terms of concrete results.
• Measurable: goals and agreements are measurable in terms of quantity, quality, and time.
• Acceptable: goals and agreements are acceptable for yourself and others.
• Realistic: golas and agreements are realistic in sense of its feasibility and practicability. Time: a certain time period is mentioned and are provided with a (end) date.

1. The Agenda
Three conditions should be taken care of for every meeting:

1. a fixed agenda (the box below contains the agenda for an average meeting).
2. a time frame
3. clear objectives for the meeting (Preferably, put this in writing, but otherwise make these points clear verbally at the beginning of the meeting).

Components of an ordinary agenda

• opening
• discussion of the minutes (of last meeting)
• announcements and treatment of incoming and outgoing mail
• subjects to be dealt with (use annexes with written information if possible)
• other subjects to be discussed, suggested during the meeting
• other business: questions remaining (chair asks each individual participant)
• close the meeting

Checklist: Tasks of the chairperson (during the) meetings

• Before
  - sets the agenda;
  - anticipates the way each theme should be discussed: sequence, timeframe, anticipating possible opposition;

• During
  - opens the meeting formally;
  - checks who is present and who not (and what reasons were given for not attending);
  - goes through each point of the agenda;
  - gives a short introduction to each point;
  - makes sure that the discussion goes according to plan and reaches conclusions through summaries from time to time and by involving participants who are not making themselves clear, or are not actively participating; deals with participants who use presentation tricks;
  - participates as little as possible in the actual discussion;
  - ensures that the amount of time scheduled for each part is not exceeded;
  - makes sure that people are designated operational responsibilities which are then listed in the minutes (F3);
  - should be aware of ‘groupthink’ (F5), reductive listening and other forms of negative group dynamism;
  - closes the meeting formally by summarising what has been achieved during the meeting;
  - ensures that everyone is in agreement about the next meeting date;
  - geeft de voorzittersrol tijdelijk over aan een ander als de eigen taak op de agenda staat.
   
• After
  - makes certain that the minutes are correct (secretary first gives minutes to the chair);
  - sees to it that the participants receive a copy of the minutes;
  - controls the execution of the agreed tasks

Procrastination is the avoidance of doing a task, which needs to be accomplished.1) This is a ‘disease’ everybody is victim to. William Knaus estimated that 90% of college students procrastinate. Of these students, 25% are chronic procrastinators and they are usually the ones who end up dropping out of college.2)

Why do students procrastinate?

• Poor Time Management; procrastination means not managing time wisely. You may be uncertain of your priorities, goals and objectives. You may also be overwhelmed with the task.
• Difficulty Concentrating; when you sit at your desk you find yourself daydreaming, staring into space, looking at pictures of your boyfriend/girlfriend, etc., instead of doing the task. Your environment is distracting and noisy. You keep running back and forth for equipment such as pencils or a dictionary etc.
• Finding the task boring.
• Personal problems; for example, financial difficulties, problems with your boyfriend/girlfriend, etc.
• Fear and Anxiety; you may be overwhelmed with the task and afraid of getting a failing grade. As a result, you spend a great deal of time worrying about your upcoming exams, papers and projects, rather than completing them.
• Negative Beliefs such as; "I cannot succeed in anything" and "I lack the necessary skills to perform this”.
• Unrealistic Expectations and Perfectionism; you may believe that you MUST read everything ever written on a subject before you can begin to write your paper or you may think that you haven't done the best you possibly could do. Fear of Failure; you may think that if you don't get an 'A', you are failure. Or that if you fail an exam, you, as a person, are a failure, rather than that you are a perfectly ok person who has failed an exam 4).

A checklist: meetings can be effective when.......

• the aim of the meeting is made clear beforehand;
• everybody respects the aims of the meeting;
• participants prepare for the meeting;
• the meeting runs according to the agenda and the intended time limit;
• only appropriate and useful contributions are delivered;
• the participation is limited to persons who are directly involved with the topics under consideration;
• all relevant information is available;
• relevant decisions are made and clear action is initiated;
• clear responsibilities and time frames for implementation are designated.
• formal and informal communication patterns are understood and managed adequately

From the third step onwards in the brainstorming process – so in the selection and decision-making phase - conflicts can arise within the team. People who push their own interests too much in this phase, decrease the willingness of the other group members to contribute to the joint group project. Take sufficient time in this phase to discuss and specify group aims which are shared or at least accepted by all group members. Take in this stage in particular the basic negotiation and feedback rules into account (G11-G13). Applying these rules helps avoid conflict in a team. Other problems derive from the relatively chaotic process that brainstorming entails. There are two temporary roles that need to be taken in order to make sure that the brainstorm does not end up in chaos: the ‘chair’ and the ‘secretary’ role.

• The chair - Brainstorming without a (temporary) chair ends up in chaos. The chair manages the brainstorm session, in particular by making sure that nobody interrupts one another, that no comments are giving on the proposed ideas before everybody is given the same opportunity to share their ideas with the group. Furthermore, the chair has to make sure that the brainstorm remains focused on the main subject. Finally, the chair takes the responsibility that something has to come out of the brainstorm. So the chair acts as ‘primus inter pares’ (first among equals), as the falicitator of the process, not as the decision-maker. The chair can summarize all pros and cons and propose a decision-making procedure (G5).
   
• The rapporteur - The role of the secretary or rapporteur of a brainstorm session depends on the strategy chosen. In particular for collective verbal brainstorming, the role is vital and requires a high degree of integrity. Because many possibilities are mentioned during a brainstorm, nobody except the secretary will be able to remember; so the reporting could be biased (and therefore not accepted in later phases by some of the participants). The secretary therefore does not participate in the brainstorming either, but has the sole task to register. A good technique is to write all remarks down on the blackboard. The group members then can see whether their remarks are taken seriously. While writing down, the secretary can pose clarification questions, but not participate in the discussion.

Bad time management occurs when you cannot handle a number of ‘time wasters’. Time wasters are related and are often cumulative. Identification should create the precondition under which you can work on tackling your time wasters in the most effective way possible. The box helps you to identify your main ‘time wasters’.

1. Finishing the project
Finalising a research project is always a very hectic moment. There is hardly any time left which require you to work under extreme pressure. Small irritations during the project stage can become major conflicts during the final stage. To prevent this from happening, take the following pointers into account:

• Make clear that everybody needs to be available or present during and immediately after the final stages of a project. Do not allow people to plan a holiday. In case of a bigger project: do not allow that people take up a holiday immediately after the deadline (how rewarding this might seem). It happens very often that you do not reach the deadline exactly, which requires that some people have to work on finishing the project even after the deadline. Make this decision not into a negative one by making yourself unavailable. Another reason for not taking up a holiday, is because you want to evaluate the project properly which best can be done immediately after finishing the project.
• Make the specific tasks assigned to each group member as concrete as possible. In the last phase of a project your group should really develop a very functional division of labour, but without putting too much responsibility into the hands of individual group members.
• Designate a final editor or agree upon a procedure in which it is clear who is responsible for the final result. One of the biggest problems that can
• Give one group member the responsibility for the final layout of the report, but discuss the options before you make a choice as a group.
• Group projects often lead to sloppy and careless use of language. In particular differences in spelling are irritating to the reader. Make a list of words which require a specific spelling. Each member of the group contributes to this list on the basis of an own list, made during the writing process.
• Always take time to use a spell check: use software programmes and decide – in case you have not yet done this in advance which is to be preferred - whether you want to use British or American spelling if you write in English. In addition to this, check the spelling yourself by proof-reading carefully (E9-10, E14-15). In principle, each group member should be responsible for this.
• Make a final check: did you explain concepts, have you given short introductions, have you written an executive summary (E3-5). Finally, never barter with free-riders (G7, G11-G13) to compensate for their insufficient participation in the project during the final stages of the group process. Free-riders will not be able to bring the research to an end in an adequate manner, because they have not been actively involved. Do not allow the group to be dependent on weak group members.

Implementation: Divided tasks: 4W-model
The sub division of smaller tasks can best be done when all team members are present. In the specification of tasks, people often tend to forget – for various reasons – a number of dimensions of the taks, which lateron in the process might become problematic. One of the reasons is that other team members are also not able to check progress with team members if the specification of the divided tasks is not done appropriately. In order to take all relevant practical dimensions into account, individual assignments have to answer four questions:

• What needs to be done exactly?
• Who is responsible for which task?
• What needs to be done exactly?
• Why does it need to be done?
• When does it have to be finished?

It is an essential part of effective team-management that everybody, in principle, can indicate at every moment what all other team members are doing and how this fits within their own work.

Step 2: Identify Team Roles
To what extent can individuals with completely different skill profiles effectively work together? Belbin (1993) reasons that differences among team members in fact enhances the functioning of the whole group. She defined nine roles that have to be present in a successful team. Every role has its own specific character traits, each role supports another role (Table G.2). Belbin’s team role model explains why certain persons can cooperate very well and other’s less. People normally fulfill more roles in teams, but nobody is good at all roles. There are ‘allowable weaknesses’ in the skill profiles of team members. In effective teams, team members complement one another. Consequently, frustrations, which arise within every team, can be contained easily, when team members are well aware of the function of differences in the group.

Research amongst business students in 2006, hypothesized a number of relationships between the Belbin categories and the Skill Profiles in the Skill Sheets (Landis and Leliveld, 2006). Table G.2 shows in a simplified manner the results of this research project. Noticeable is in particular the strong skill profile of the implementer. This particular category is often also one of the most outspoken categories in group processes. Coordinators, shapers and resource investigators scored well on every skill. So, for these team roles it can be suggested that they approach most clearly the ambition of this Skill Sheet collection, i.e. the ‘integrated’ approach in which all skills are related and considered vital for study, research and management. This link has never been researched in detail, so the first results have to be interpreted with great caution.

• Identify which of Belbin’s Team Roles are present in the group
• Link these team roles with the research orientation and skill profile of each team member. Table G.2 links the Belbin roles with expected skill and research profiles. Examine to what extent the expected skill orientation in Table G.2 applies.
• Discuss on the basis of these profiles whether the group has sufficient diversity and complementarity in Team Roles and Skill Profiles to work together on this particular project.

In groups, both attitudes can be functional. Groups composed of only one type of participant face specific problems. If there are only ‘other-oriented’ members, groups lack sufficient ‘critical’ attitude and the capability to handle assignments effectively. If there are only ‘I-oriented’ members, groups lack sufficient ‘thoroughness’, and indecisive discussions could occur. The group is more likely to run out of time. Assignments will often be completed hurriedly, without thorough argumentation.

It is important to understand the possible functionality of each attitude for group work. In doing this, conflicts between the two attitudes can be prevented and maximum use can be made of each attitude. Table B3c presents a simple diagnostic tool that can help you to identify the personal attitude of each group member. A number of questions are listed. They can be divided in four categories: (A) if you participate in a discussion, (B) how you participate in a discussion, (C) how you relate to a teacher/tutor, and (D) how you study in general. If you have mainly answered ‘yes’ to the ‘other-oriented’ questions or to the ‘I-oriented’ column, your profile is clear for the moment: you are either a more dependent or a more independent group member.

These four basic principles can be elaborated further in a number of extra ‘rules of thumb’ to achieve effective negotiation behaviour (Fisher and Ury, 1981):

People:

• Put yourself in the position of the other person.
• Don’t blame them for your problem.
• Be hard on the problem, soft on the people.
• Give them a stake in the outcome.

Interests:

• For a wise solution reconcile interests.
• Interests best define the problem.
• Behind opposed positions shared and compatible interests can exist. Identify them.
• Realise that each side has multiple interests.

Options:

• Invent options for mutual gain.
• Consider brainstorming with ‘the opposition’ to come up with additional options.
• Try to broaden your options. This can limit the areas of contention.
• Change the scope for a proposed agreement.
• Invent agreements of varying strengths:
  - substantive - procedural
  - permanent - provisional
  - comprehensive - partial
  - final - in principle
  - unconditional - contingent
  - binding - non-binding

Criteria:

• Insist on using objective criteria and/or fair standards such as:
  - professional standards
  - efficiency
  - equity or equal treatment
  - reciprocity
  - legal standards
  - existing precedents
  - moral standards, such as human rights
  - costs or market value

Frame each issue as a joint search for objective criteria.

Preventing
Free-riding Free-riders are people who use the efforts of a group without making sufficient contributions themselves. Free-riding describes the act of trying to get the maximum result with the minimum of effort. Occasionally, everyone is a free-rider in a group. The reasons for this can vary. In general, however, free-riding - certainly when it involves always the same persons - jeopardises the functioning of the whole group. Therefore, it should be taken very seriously. The reasons for free-riding behaviour change along the stages of the team development process (G11-13) which makes it hard to deal with free-riding only at the moment it appears. Free-riders can only be dealt with if you have made it part of the group contract and/or have discussed beforehand what everyone in the group is expected to do. Only then, can the free-rider problem (1) be identified in time (which is very difficult even for the person who is the free-rider), and (2) addressed.

Basic rule: A person who has been unable to carry out his/her responsibilities should indicate this immediately to the group. This person should come up with a proposal for compensating the deficiencies in his/her group contribution. It is not the responsibility of the group to do this, it is the responsibility of the (dysfunctional) individual member to come up with compensation. If the person does not do this, he/she can be considered to be a real free-rider: someone who intentionally tries to profit from the efforts of others. Talk about this problem openly with the person involved. Do this as soon as the problem arises. Real free-riders should be excluded from a group, but only when you have given the person a fair chance to offer compensatory action.

Getting and giving feedback is one of the crucial activities that add value to working in groups. However, this is often one of the least well developed skills. One of the principles of effective self-management has been to generate and to receive sufficient feedback (B15). This requires a mental attitude as much as the awareness of its importance. In group processes, the organization of feedback is much simpler, since teams are supposed to work together and comment on each other’s work. Feedback therefore is a precondition for group work, but if badly executed it can also be extremely destructive. Effectively managing feedback is a task for the giver and for the receiver. Effective feedback depends on three conditions:

• Measurable goals in close consultation with the group or the receiver of the feedback;
• Positive feedback on the achievements of the person or group, and
• An appropriate reward to the performance.

Task for the receiver of feedback
The following listening pointers apply to receiving oral feedback:

• Keep calm, listen carefully and concentrated
• Do not interrupt the person offering the feedback o Always make notes (in order to show the feedback giver that you are serious)
• Adopt an active listening posture (lean forward to show that you are interested; look open and receptive for the feedback)
• Do not act defensively (do not say ‘yes… but’); never become angry on the feedback giver; do not take it personally
• Concentrate on the words that are being said, instead of on the way that they are being said or on (your perception of) any hidden messages.
• Summarize the feedback in your own words
• When confronted with negative feedback, try to get the person to specify and make concrete;
• Always welcome serious feedback and always thank the feedback giver afterwards.

Getting and giving feedback is one of the crucial activities that add value to working in groups. However, this is often one of the least well developed skills. One of the principles of effective self-management has been to generate and to receive sufficient feedback (B15). This requires a mental attitude as much as the awareness of its importance. In group processes, the organization of feedback is much simpler, since teams are supposed to work together and comment on each other’s work. Feedback therefore is a precondition for group work, but if badly executed it can also be extremely destructive. Effectively managing feedback is a task for the giver and for the receiver. Effective feedback depends on three conditions:

• Measurable goals in close consultation with the group or the receiver of the feedback;
• Positive feedback on the achievements of the person or group, and
• An appropriate reward to the performance.

Task for the receiver of feedback
The following listening pointers apply to receiving oral feedback:

• Keep calm, listen carefully and concentrated
• Do not interrupt the person offering the feedback o Always make notes (in order to show the feedback giver that you are serious)
• Adopt an active listening posture (lean forward to show that you are interested; look open and receptive for the feedback)
• Do not act defensively (do not say ‘yes… but’); never become angry on the feedback giver; do not take it personally
• Concentrate on the words that are being said, instead of on the way that they are being said or on (your perception of) any hidden messages.
• Summarize the feedback in your own words
• When confronted with negative feedback, try to get the person to specify and make concrete;
• Always welcome serious feedback and always thank the feedback giver aferwards.

‘Unhealthy’ group dynamics occur in any group, but particularly in closed groups (G2) working on one project. Basically unhealthy group dynamics is caused by a lack of communication or of non-constructive communication between the group members. In case you have applied the rules and tips contained in the preceding Skill Sheets, the change that your group ends up in disarray, decreases considerably.

In that case you should be able to deal with the following sources of potential conflict:

• Not listening to each other: can be due to a lack of constructive listening skills (D series), but is in group practice often strongly related to bad decision-making procedures (G5), including lack of brainstorming (G3) and lacking of feedback and coaching skills (G9).
• An unbalanced work distribution: is often caused by a lack of assertiveness of individual group members (B3), which in groups can cause an inappropriate assignment of roles and tasks (G4), in particular at the start of projects (participants not able to say ‘no’)
• Participants not keeping their promises: is very often due to good individual time management skills (B10), but in group practice often is caused by an unsophisticated group contract (G7). Two remaining dimensions of unhealthy group dynamics, however, remain that pop during the ‘performing’ stage of group work and that first need to be identified and understood as such before adequate action can be undertaken: (1) group think and (2) the changing causes of free-rider behavior.